Managing a Culturally Diverse Human Resource

Introduction Most of the Arab Gulf States such as the United Arab Emirates have constructive engagements with diverse personnel and clients who assist in the current acceleration of economic growth as well as that of the dependants who are mainly developing countries benefiting from oil exports or other wide range of products and machinery.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Managing a Culturally Diverse Human Resource specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One of the credible factors the Arabs Gulf States ought to address urgently includes employees’ management issues. Thesis statement This paper discovers and addresses some of the challenges relating to management of employees faced by some companies in Arab Gulf States, particularly issues relating to foreign workforce and its effects. The paper relies on findings from successful firms in United Arab Emirates. Labour markets face major consequences of segmentat ion, cultural challenges, performance expectations and other challenges relating to current indoctrination trends. Literature Review Contemporary Issues Job markets The Gulf States have recently been the largest markets or best choice for most international job seekers. The governments of United Arab Emirates encourage migration as a measure to ease pressure associated with labour markets, reduce rates of unemployment as well as accelerate economical developments. It is the most dynamic, established and most efficient measure for curbing the alleviating levels of poverty among most developing nations (Walters et al, p.32). Migration Oil wealth has attracted many immigrants into the Gulf States in search for better paying jobs especially people from developing countries. This a big challenge that HR systems of most United Arab Emirates companies faces today and in future. The economy growth mainly relies on the forces and foreign employees deliver majority required labour.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Reliability on such is evidently a huge challenge on employees’ management such as among popular wealthy emirates clusters in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. The United Arab Emirates has successful international companies such as Voltas Limited, a Tata Group company or Levtech Consulting Company in Abu Dhabi employs from different states with different cultural procedures. Cultural and Gender Disparity The labour market faces a big challenge of under representation of women due to their cultural believes and prior HRM styles. Existence of the high quality education enables women to enjoy the same rates as their male counterparts. Women make up majority of population in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Bahrain (Pollock, p.9). Human management has to ensure there is no gap difference in gender participation and enhance future substantial democratization advantages ( Pollock, p.9). Social identity theory Contemporary Thinking in an Organization Cultural diversity entails the experiences and characteristics of different people within an organization. It includes the whole spectrum of human beings including ethnicity, race, age, gender, disability, religion and the sexual orientation. Most importantly, diversity ought to focus on individual work style, communication technique, role level, level of performance and economic significance. The main aim of diversity is to tap talent and unique qualities along these dimensions. Diversity therefore focuses on differences and similarities at the workplace. This influence over individual identity and perspective goes beyond legally specified dimensions and from that perspective, it can be a source of non-discriminatory opportunities and affirmative statutes within the work setting. The workplace ought to have non-discriminatory programs through the organization culture. This is the key element representing dignity and respect for all, to encourage knowledge or experience gain and team work. There ought to be some proactive measures required to deal with conflicts associated with workplace diversity and cater for ways of fostering the practice. Common Pros and Cons Associated With Diversity Cultural diversity boosts company’s competitive situation in the market. Unlike the early days when marketers thought that certain goods or services were universally acceptable, cultural diversification enables today’s marketers to know that different cultures demand for different taste of the same product or service.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Managing a Culturally Diverse Human Resource specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Large chain stores like Wal-Mart or Woolworths are in a position to establish the best way of presenting their products depending on location. (Booyens, p.56) Today we see a business scenari o where small and medium sized companies are able to give big company a run for their money because they have understood the concept of trading in a multi-cultural setting. The twenty first century creates openings for engaging in technological aspects and resources such as internet trading, which assists to overcome physical boundaries. A culturally diverse company is rich in knowledge pertaining people from various countries thus has enough chances of enhancing trade (Mathis et al, p.16). A business with ethnic diversity can easily serve a wide base of clients without much effort considering the ease for workers to relate with clients. The clients have a diverse representation in the firm thus high interactions between client and server. There is a wide variety and well-balanced pool of knowledge created by diverse cultures in the workplace. Knowledge is power to gain experience, creativity, customer support or participation, lasting results and eventually long-term high profit ma rgins (Booyens, p.163). Lack of acceptance and discrimination are characteristics of failure to enhance cultural diversity in the workplace. People from different background still have personal features hindering this form of development. The cultural diversity within an organization with such people can be the main source of conflicts, group-work failures and thus fall of business operations and eventually poor economical growth. The diversity issue can therefore be a negative aspect if it lacks proper implementation procedures.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Proactive measures of resolving diversification at the workplace Implementation of cultural diversity at the workplace should be subsequent to strategically planning. Execution or change management must entail employees’ inspiration through infusion or integration of various aspects, such as those involving diversification into the business procedures or requirements. It ought to apply from the top executives, who should show commitment and importance of diversity. Having the employees understand the importance of diversity from the word goes reduces any possibilities of conflicts. The top Human Resource leaders must engage an upbeat measure of solving diversity related conflicts by regularly emphasising on its benefits to the firm. The business cultural commitment to diversity requires legal gazetting with the external regulator body to emphasize on the consequences regarding those conflicts that break the rule. In relation to Booyens writing (p.163), a company need to have programs for performing prior training to employees on how to deal with counterparts from different cultural setting. Arguably, it is impossible for employees to be careful on issues regarding stereotyping, language differences, time differences and individual versus collective mindset, as a measure of avoiding conflicts or resolving diversity related disagreements. Fostering cultural diversity at the workplace Promotion of cultural diversity in the workplace ought to take place before commencement of hiring. This means that one should include diversity in the business plan. In line with Daft and Marcic (p.244), discovery of strengths or benefits of an action occur well prior to proper planning. These calls for the HR management to be responsive over recognizing, respecting and capitalizing on various aspects of the society mainly regarding ethnicity, race and gender. A good manager should note that even outside the work setting; one finds exposure of various cultural practices. Acc ording to Daft and Marcic (p.244), a good system capitalizes on the employees strengths while minimizing on the weaknesses. The differences between employees’ culture should entail proper usage, to strengthen understanding and enhance stronger bonds through team works as a measure to capture global clientele. An entrepreneur should know that diversity is something more than mare moral obligation or a necessity for a business but is a business opportunity. Elements of managing diversity Evidently, majority of the companies have embraced the aspect of Human Resource Information System to enhance better styles of carrying out proceedings in HR departments. Competition calls for total integration of technology in the human resource department, to reshape the pattern of conducting business and maintain competitiveness in the global economy. Like the past motives, today’s business goals entail making profits by selling products or services that satisfy the societal needs (Wa lters et al, p.7). The only difference is on the use of technology for better enhancement and thus quicker and higher profit margins. Given the resolution of the society to embrace change, it is necessary to examine relationship between the Human Resource Management and integrations of technology. It also addresses the future expectation for professionals in various industries. The HR management involves solution of various business strategic plans and failure to incorporate the IT is one of the root cause of the current collapse or liquidation of some firms. There is eminent need for a business to shift with the societal norms less it perish in the near future. Consistent with Voltas Limited, proper HR Management calls for professionals to engage in understanding clients and employee’s behaviours competently, by basing the logistics on past and present status, to be in a position of predicting the future (Walters et al, p.4). According to Walters et al (p.4), future HR manag ers should use the technological advancement to control three aspects of businesses namely, â€Å"business strategy, HR mastery and Technology† as evident in today’s ever-dynamic world of technological management. Theoretical Concepts of Strategic HRM in the 21st Century Resource dependence Theory This is a conceptual advancement to cater for reduction of environmentally dependent concepts and uncertainties and maximizing on available resources such as human resources (Mathias et al, p.34). Today most companies have realized the key role of their HR departments. The HR department should be the key business strategic planner through deployment of technology such as the web-based analysis of economic factors influencing the business in order to increase profitability. Discovery of knowledge as the key resource for the HR department is the basis for future predictions that HR management will necessitate for new and radical management strategies and practices. The field of information technology ought to replace firms’ important administrative tasks. The tasks that involve merging of firms, integration of new resources such as outsourcing and involving of joint ventures are all concerns of the HR managers. Other common tasks entitled to HR department today include involvement on leadership such as directors’ roles, necessary political actions and formation of inter-organizational relationships. The managers in the HR department should be the strategic business associates who ought to ensure business gains from the planning strategies. According to Mathias et al, (p.34) HR management system should have the sole role of ensuring maximization of profit margins through enhanced quality and technology based on human management as a way of creating value to the organization. Signalling theory The aspects of internet required for the HR management, which comprise of the intranet technology, electronic education for the clients as well as the e mployees, self-service for the client, gathering of the client’s response, virtual reactions to comments through surveys and electronic comments forms the signalling features. The HR managers must be in a position to perform a critical SWOT analysis of a firm and offer prospective analysis. A good example of the analysis involves the operation of Saudi Arabia ARAMCO Company (Walters, p.5). It is an international producer, marketer and distributor of oil and gas products competing in the global markets. SWOT Analysis summary STRENGTH WEAKNESS OPPORTUNITY S-O( MAX-MAX) W-O (MIN-MAX) THREATS S-T (MAX-MIN) W-T (MIN-MIN) S-O, the company should pursue opportunities that are within their strength. W-O, the company need to minimize on any of their internal weakness and try to utilize external opportunity coming their way S-T, ARAMCO has to maximize on the available strengths and avoids threats from the external environment W-T, these are external environment factors that should fully be minimized to enable the growth of the company Swot Analysis Chart HR Feedback to improve ARAMCO Supply Chain Strategic Theory for Future Human Resources plans Most of the employees as well as the clients have access to computers and internet connections. The aspect of electronic trading has already been acceptable among users. In line with Daft and Marcic, (p.150) the future implication and planning of these technological advancement means advancement in employees’ productivity and therefore the general performance will increase drastically. During the integration of information technology into business, the aim is to eventually manage and improve the customer’s relationship, manage the intelligence in the business setting, plan for the resources, manage people especially in terms of the knowledge, manage supply chain, enhance electronic trade as well as support decision making procedures (Daft and Marcic, p.244). Today utilizing the available technolo gy is inevitable, the question remain whether the companies are utilizing the technology in the right manner especially for the human resource departments. According to Daft and Marcic, (368) what lies ahead is a human resource department focused on a knowledge based economy, where the race remain between the rivalry companies over fast learning and flexible organization with the aim of taking the advantage over the already technologically acquainted markets. The technological advancement allows companies to be in a position of collaborating and exchanging information over contraction or stockholding and the recent merging programs. Major future understanding of the IT integrated in the HR management entails definition of the intended and anticipated outcomes. The current increased usage of technology in the workplace shows that it is inevitable for the HR departments to adopt the web-based systems. Resource-based view Theory In future, users expect the human resource information te chnology to manage the company’s benefit plans and all the employees’ information. The benefits management plans enable the HR department to deal with the ever-growing databases. The HR faces the challenge of dealing with dynamism and limited resources due to expansion of databases and growth of information. Conclusion An effective HRIS or HRMS should have provision for any requirements of the business such as the need to track, analyze or process employees’ information for instance from the previous employers databases. An advanced HRIS ought to avail customization probabilities to cater for unique business needs. The employees are in a position to do personal benefit analysis and updates such as changing profiles like the personal addresses thus relieving the management most of the strategic functions. With such connecting intelligent system, it is easy to facilitate equal treatment of data pertaining management of employees, development of knowledge, developm ent of careers and facilitation of equal treatment. There is eminent need for future systems to enable employers to collect and analyze information legally with the aim of ethically assisting and providing effective support to reporting employees. Works Cited Booyens, S.W. â€Å"Introduction to Health Service Management.† Juta and Company Ltd. South Africa. 2008. Daft, Richard.L. and Marcic, Dorothy. â€Å"Understanding Management.† Cengage Learning, 2008 Mathis, Robert, L., Jackson, John. H. and Elliott, Tonya L. Human Resource  Management. Cambridge, MA: Thomson Southwestern Publishers, 2007 Pollock, Michelle. â€Å"Qatar: A Model for Education Reform in the Arabian Gulf.† World  Education News and Reviews May 2007. Web. Walters, Timothy N., Alma Quadratic, and Lynne M. Walters. â€Å"Miracle or Mirage: Is Development Sustainable in the United Arab Emirates?† The Middle East  Review of International Affairs (MERIA). (September) 10:3. 2006 This report on Managing a Culturally Diverse Human Resource was written and submitted by user Lady Deathstrike to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. 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Trading Places - Liquid Science Magic Trick

Trading Places - Liquid Science Magic Trick Here is a quick and interesting science trick for you.  Take two glasses of different-colored liquids and watch the liquids switch places in the glasses. Magic Trick Materials This science magic trick or demonstration can be performed using many different liquids, such as water and wine, water and oil, or water and whiskey. All you need are two liquids that have different densities. If the liquids dont mix (such as water and oil), you will get a clearly-defined separation. Expect some mixing of water with rubbing alcohol or an alcoholic beverage. You can tint a water or alcohol-based liquid with food coloring. two small identical glasses, such as shot glasseswateroil or wine or whiskey or rubbing alcohol a thin waterproof card, such as a drivers license Perform the Liquid Magic Trick Fill one glass completely full with water.Fill the other glass completely full with the other liquid you selected.Place the card over the water glass. While holding the card onto the glass, flip the water glass over and set it and the card on top of the second glass.Line the glasses up so that they are even and move the card so that there is just a tiny bit of open space at the edge of the glasses.Over the next few minutes (about 10 minutes for shot glasses), the liquids will exchange places. The alcohol or oil will rise to the top while the water sinks and fills the bottom glass. How the Liquid Magic Trick Works Well, obviously not by magic! This is simple science. The two liquids have different densities from each other. Basically, the lighter liquid will float while the heavier liquid will sink. You would see the same result if you had removed the card entirely, except this way is prettier and looks more magical.

E- Marketing for New Companies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

E- Marketing for New Companies - Essay Example Chatterjee (2009) has noted that the competition among start-up companies can be high. It is also explained that most of these companies need to reach a high number of customers, usually worldwide (Chatterjee 2009), a target that it is difficult to be achieved without the use of the Internet and social media. Â  The current paper focuses on a particular form of marketing, the e-marketing, which is often described as internet marketing. Reference is made specifically to the current status of e-marketing and its value for promoting the products/ services of a start-up company. The literature related to the specific issue has been reviewed and evaluated in order to decide whether and at what level e-marketing can be effective in promoting a start-up company. It is revealed that e-marketing would be the most appropriate form of marketing for developing such activity. On the other hand, there are many e-marketing strategies available to start-up companies that need to promote their products/ services. This means that e-marketing is a valuable tool for promoting start-up companies but it cannot perform high unless it is effectively managed, as all other tools that support modern business operations. Moreover, it should be noted that e-marketing cannot secure the success of start-up companies b ut only in cases when its involvement in the marketing of these companies is carefully planned and monitored so that unexpected failures, that can be major, are avoided. Â  In order to understand the role of e-marketing in the promotion of start-up companies, it should be necessary to explain the key characteristics and advantages of e-marketing, as a concept closely related to the advances of technology and the changes in customer trends worldwide.

The role of dalogue in an organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The role of dalogue in an organization - Essay Example To retain and maintain competitiveness, organizations are increasingly faced with the task of maintaining dialogue. Organizations have to get agile and creative as they meet their communication needsIn many cases, organizational communication becomes unsustainable, and it tends to be less interactive, less inquiry, less listening, and more talking. This provides minimum room for accommodating opposingDialogue is a means of constructively dealing with opposition and conflicts. Classical diplomacy spheres dictate the needs for dialogue and negotiation skills, which form the basic repertoire in prudent management (Gergen & Barrett, 2008, p. 5). This essay highlights the role of dialogue in organizations, and it is tied to the group project-Organizational Communication Analysis, which has two parts. It aims to report on the findings from small-scale organizational communication evaluation.Organizations incorporate networks of relationships that are broken down to interpersonal interactio ns; hence communication frequently occurs in the organization. Communication is vital in organizations. For instance, people resist change because they believe their concerns and ideas lack audience. When people get the notion that there exist effective communication, and their ideas and concerns have an audience, the resistance fades or dissolves even though the ideas lack in the final resolutions (Jong & Ping, 2005, p.3). Dialogue has its roots from native traditions, and contemporary varieties of talking and spiritual circles. It allows for the creation and flow of meaning between people.

Working With Groups of Children Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Working With Groups of Children - Essay Example The deductions from the study revealed that children develop excellent communication skills from the group interactions with regard to the level of development of the children (Wilson, 2008, 87). These children have an easy time in conceptualizing ideas of their colleagues hence this makes the learning of various communication skills through interaction with their fellow colleagues smooth. This is because they have already grasped communication styles and techniques necessary for communication. This shows that the children can gain more from an objective and resourceful interaction from mature persons and their fellow colleagues too (Grossman, 2005, 39). However, the children peg their friendship on the physique and the closeness of their friends. The environment in which the children are operating, and the people the child interacts with are vital in gauging the progress in the development of communication skills through small group interactions. For instance if a child is subjected to harsh people and bad environmental conditions while learning, the child will retreat hence no learning will occur. On the other hand, when a child interacts with a charismatic and friendly pe ople, he or she is likely to open up and will learn ideas presented to him or her. It was found that the environment also a determining factor in the development of a child’s communication skills (Machado, 2012, 97). Another aspect of interaction among children is that same sex children are more likely to learn from each other more easily than children of the opposite sex. This improves their social life because they socialize with less difficulty and losing such attachment slows a child’s social development and communication skill development. Moreover, this may lead to self-centeredness in a child .At this age, children learn from each other through imitation and they agitate to show their psychosocial, emotional and cognitive skills.

International Legal Position on Software Patents

International Legal Position on Software Patents Title ‘Discuss critically the current international legal position on the patentability of software and business method inventions’. Introduction As a general proposition, the speed at which a true global economy has been assembled over the past 20 years has been the dominant element in the re-ordering of international legal regulations concerning software and business method patents. The central premise of this paper is the that ability to regulate by patent the speed of scientific progress is akin to attempting to score a direct hit on a moving target. This paper will examine the relationship between global economic forces and patentability, first from the United Kingdom perspective as an example of a national intellectual property protection system. The analysis will then be directed to the European Patent Convention and its regulatory framework, with a comparison drawn between the EPC and other regimes. The supranational patent enforcement structure provided by way of the World Trade Organisation is the final international aspect of the review. These selected legal frameworks are not intended as an exhaustive summary of international patent law; they establish a useful basis against which the present question may be considered from commercial and public perspectives. As the following review illustrates, international software and business method patent law is a mixture of legal theory, economic factors, and philosophical preferences regarding the control of ideas and related technologies. The international intellectual property legal order is not so much a finite system as it is a still-evolving organism where certainty of result and clarity of legal purpose are not settled. Patents, software and business method inventions generally The term ‘business method invention’ is a very broad and circumstance driven notion; it is often defined by what it is not, as opposed to what in fact it represents. As a general rule, business method inventions are any design that encompasses economic activities such as buying and selling items, marketing techniques, financial schemes (e.g. pension plan organisations) and gaming strategies.[1] In the European Union, the historical distinction between patentable and non-patentable inventions was the presence of a technical component in the design or system; business method inventions were therefore inherently non-patentable concepts in Europe.[2] Software is a similarly broad term that is capable of bearing several meanings. For the purpose of the present review, system software is any software required to support the production or execution of application programs but which is not specific to any particular application[3]. Examples of system software would include a computer operating system[4]. By contrast, application programs include Microsoft Excel © or computer assisted drawing (CAD) programmes; this software includes source code written by humans and executable machine code[5]. Software does not usually include the data processed by programs unless the desired format depends on the use of computers for its presentation, such as multimedia[6]. Patents and intellectual property protection turns on two fundamental principles, the territorial nature of the protection, and the extent to which a patent holder may permit others through licenses or other agreements to use the protected property. Given that patent law is not harmonised to any significant degree, patent protection is at best a variable and imperfect tool to promote rights associated with software and business inventions. [7] As this analysis progresses, it is important to distinguish between the characteristics of patents and those of copyright. Copyright is the protection afforded to intellectual property regarding how an idea may be expressed or controlled. While copyright does not safeguard the idea itself, software copyright usually extends its coverage to the reproduction of software source codes. Patents are the legal protection granted by a country over an invention, its underlying methodology, or its function. Patent law provides more comprehension protection that that available by copyright, licensing, or other any other safeguards that may be created by a contract over intellectual property. A patent is commercially desirable because as it establishes a legal monopoly over the protected property for the patent holder, adding value to the protected concept. The American influence A critical discussion of international software patent law that does not touch upon the American legal position is akin to not mentioning the proverbial white elephant seated at one’s dinner table. The United States Patent Office historically has been the busiest such institution in the world; American based companies initiate more patents world wide that any other business sector. The United States Supreme Court was the first to legalise software patents[8] and the first major jurisdiction to give explicit recognition to the concept of the business method patent.[9] American influence has been important but not determinative in these areas; however, the American test for a business method invention patent as whether the subject concept leads to a ‘useful, concrete and tangible result’ is very influential.[10] The American approach may be borne in mind as the UK, European, and World Trade Organisation positions are considered. UK patents Reflecting the biases of the first English patent law[11], there was a long held reluctance in the UK to permit computer innovation patents. In the 1970s, as computer technology experienced incredible global growth, UK patents were restricted to industrial innovations, machinery, manufactured products, and tangible items. Patents were not granted in the UK where the subject involved the mathematical expression of a scientific truth such as an algorithm. Three recent UK patent law decisions are instructive in this regard. The most current and arguably the most important articulation of UK software patent law principles is Aerotel Ltd. v Telco Holdings Ltd.[12] The Court of Appeal considered the deficiencies of both UK and European patent legislation in light of modern global commercial developments. The Court, through Jacobs LJ stated that it had no concern for the intense current political debates concerning software patents[13], a statement that is difficult to accept at face value given the multinational nature of the case. However, the Court described the fundamental purpose for modern patent protection in clear and unambiguous language: The patent system is there to provide a research and investment incentive but it has a price. That price (what economists call transaction costs) is paid in a host of ways: the costs of patenting, the impediment to competition, the compliance cost of ensuring non-infringement, the cost of uncertainty, litigation costs and so on. There is, so far as we know, no really hard empirical data showing that the liberalisation of what is patentable in the USA has resulted in a greater rate of innovation or investment in the excluded categories. Innovation in computer programs, for instance, proceeded at an immense speed for years before anyone thought of granting patents for them as such[14]. The Court held that all (emphasis added) potential UK patents should be validated by a two part test expressed in the following terms: First, determine what the inventor has contributed to the art over and above a computer operating in a new way as a matter of substance and, second, determine whether this contribution lies in excluded matter or, on the contrary, whether it consists in a technical contribution or effect.[15] Menashe Business Mercantile Ltd v. Hill [16]is an equally instructive 2002 decision of the Court of Appeal, as the reasons for judgement underscore the fluidity of modern computer based commercial applications and the difficulty to apply traditional enforcement methods, in the context of the relationship between UK and European community patent law. The plaintiff Menashe commenced an action seeking UK enforcement of a patent issued by the European Patent Office regarding his interactive gambling software. The defendant Hill claimed that as the host computer required to operate the software system was located outside of the UK, there could be no breach of the Menache patent. The Court held that in this case, jurisdiction over the patent ‘lay with the punter’[17] – where gambling activities occurred by means of UK computer access, Hill violated the patent and the UK courts could enforce the patent. The decision referenced as CFPHs Applications, 2005[18] is a useful summary of how the UK and European Patent offices approach both software patents and business inventions; the Court strikes a blow for pragmatism in its conclusion that there will likely never to be a comprehensive definition of ‘invention’.[19] Accordingly, the court suggested that difference in the approaches of the UK and European patent offices should have little effect on how patents are enforced in most cases.[20] The complexity of each of the noted cases underscores an important barrier to enforcement the current patent system serves only those who can afford to litigate a patent claim. European Patent Convention (EPC) The European Union is the second most active patent registration regime in the world. EPC Article 52(1) sets out the general rule: European patents will be granted for any inventions that include a ‘technical character’.[21] Conversely, the patentability exclusions described in Article 52(2) include traditional business methods that have no invention or technical component. However, a number of concepts that combine technical and non-technical components have been approved for European patent, including an x-ray machine with a software component[22] and other computer related devices.[23] The language of EPC Articles 52 and 53 when taken together has resulted in significant confusion with respect to the availability of software patents.[24] The articles stated that ‘as such’ computer programmes are excluded from patentability, yet as of 2005 over 40,000 software –related patents had been granted by the EPO in a host of technology fields. When coupled with differing rules enacted in each of the EU member nations, software patent laws in Europe are decidedly ambiguous.[25] Europe has been an ideological battleground pitting commercial software developers against the advocates of Open Source Software (OSS)[26] over the question of whether software should be patented at all. The OSS proponents (a world wide constituency) regard software patent laws as an inhibition to true technological progress. In July, 2005 the European Parliament rejected a legislative proposal that would have expanded the ability of software developers to obtain patent protection for their inventions. Given the size and influence of the European market, the European rejection of tighter software patents may be an indicator of a larger global trend to make software generally more accessible and conversely, less amenable to patent protection.. Since 1977, patents issued by the European Patent Office have enforceable through the patent legislation of member countries; Menashe[27] is an example. EPC Article 64 provides that the national law is the only enforcement mechanism for an alleged patent violation. It is submitted that without harmonised European enforcement, a truly effective patent system is impossible; given the importance of software development, the persistence of the present system suggests that the software industry is not entirely troubled by the patchwork European law in this regard. This European legislative deficiency mirrors those of the global software and business method patent arena. World Trade Organisation (WTO) With more than 150 member countries and a host of trade agreements and protocols that touch upon wide areas of international commerce, the WTO occupies a position of apparent importance in international software patent regulation. The foundation WTO initiative is TRIPS[28], the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, ratified January 1, 1995. TRIPS is an initiative that represents the culmination of a series of multi-lateral intellectual property agreements concluded by the WTO membership. TRIPS has been heralded as the blueprint for handling international intellectual property disputes. In light of the European developments noted above, coupled with the resounding failure of earlier WTO initiatives[29], it is exceedingly doubtful that TRIPS will become an accepted software patent legislation standard. The ability of the WTO to enforce TRIPS must also be considered in light of how modern international commercial forces are often transnational entities and not the traditional nation state.[30] No significant enforcement action has been successfully undertaken pursuant to the TRIPS protocols since its enactment. What the future holds It is submitted that the current state of international software and business method patents is a natural consequence of the speed that underlies both the function of the global economy and technological development. A coherent and enforceable international patent structure may be laudable, but the speed and inherent flexibility of innovation operating independent of any government restriction appears to have spawned a new world order where rules exist as guidelines only. As Europe and the WTO struggle to resolve the patentability of â€Å"simple† computer software applications, science is relentlessly forged ahead with biotechnical and genetic software questions[31] that will pose even more perplexing regulatory issues. Bibliography Beresford, Keith â€Å"Patenting Software under the European Patent Convention† (London: Sweet Maxwell, 2003) Boyle, James â€Å"Fencing off ideas: enclosure the disappearance of the public domain† (2002) Daedalus Vol. 131, Cahill, Lisa Sowle â€Å"Biotech Justice: Catching up with the New World Order† (2003) The Hastings Center Report Vol. 33, 1 Caulder, Isis E. â€Å"Patenting Software – The Standards in U.S., Europe, Japan and Canada† http://www.bereskinparr.com/English/publications/pdf/Patent-Six-Minute-IP.pdf (Accessed January 28, 2007) FOLDOC (Free On-Line Dictionary of Computers), Imperial College http://foldoc.org/index.cgi?query=software (Accessed January 28, 2007) Guadamusz, Andres â€Å"Open Science: Open Source Software Licenses and Scientific Research† BILETA April, 2005 Ius Mentis http://www.iusmentis.com/patents/businessmethods/epc/ (Accessed January 28, 2007) Lerner, Paul and Alexander Poltorak â€Å"Essentials of Intellectual Property† (New York: Wiley, 2002) Raymond, Eric â€Å"The New Hackers Dictionary† (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1991) World Trade Organisation / Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/trips_e.htm (accessed January 28, 2007) Table of Cases Aerotel Ltd. v Telco Holdings Ltd. [2006] EWCA Civ 1371 CFPHs Appns [2005] EWHC 1589 (Pat) Commissioner of Patents v. Harvard College [2002] SCC 77 (S.C.C.), Computer-Related Invention/Vicom, Decision T 208/84 EPO (OJ 1987, 14) Diamind v Diehr (1981) 450 U.S. 175 Koch Sterzel, Decision T 26/86 EPO (OJ 1988, 19) Menashe Business Mercantile Ltd v Hill [2002] EWCA Civ 1702 State Street Bank and Trust v Signature Financial Group (1998)149 F.3d 1368 (Fed. C. A.) Table of Statutes European Patent Convention UK Patent Rules, 1995 UK Patent Act, 1977 WTO / Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property 1 [1] Ius Mentis http://www.iusmentis.com/patents/businessmethods/epc/, 1 [2] See the European Patent Convention Art. 52, 53, infra [3] Software definition by FOLDOC, http://foldoc.org/index.cgi?query=software [4] FOLDOC, ibid [5] FOLDOC (Free On-Line Dictionary of Computers), supported by Imperial College (Department of Computing), London [6] FOLDOC, ibid [7] See Pt. 5 (EPC) and Pt. 6 (WTO), infra [8] Diamind v Diehr (1981) 450 U.S. 175 [9] State Street Bank and Trust v Signature Financial Group (1998)149 F.3d 1368 (Fed. C. A.) [10] Caulder, Isis E. â€Å"Patenting Software – The Standards in U.S., Europe, Japan and Canada†, 4, 5 [11] Statute of Monopolies, 1623 [12] [2006] EWCA Civ 1371 [13] Aerotel, supra, 7 [14] Ibid, 8 [15] Ibid, 9 [16] [2002] EWCA Civ 1702 [17] Ibid, 1707 [18] [2005] EWHC 1589 (Pat). [19] ibid [20] ibid [21] See also Rule 27, European Patent rules [22] Koch Sterzel, Decision T 26/86 EPO (OJ 1988, 19 [23] Computer-Related Invention/Vicom, Decision T 208/84 EPO (OJ 1987, 14) [24] Beresford, Keith â€Å"Patenting Software under the European Patent Convention† (London: Sweet Maxwell, 2003), c 3,4 [25] Caulder, 5 [26] The Open Source debate is one beyond the scope of this paper. See Raymond, Eric The New Hackers Dictionary (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1991); also Guadamusz, Andres ‘Open Science: Open Source Software Licenses and Scientific Research’ BILETA April, 2005 [27] (n 14) [28] World Trade Organization http://www.wto.org> [29] E.g. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade [30] E.g. Microsoft; Cahill, Lisa Sowle â€Å"Biotech Justice: Catching up with the New World Order† (2003) The Hastings Center Report Vol. 33, 1 [31] Commissioner of Patents v. Harvard College [2002] SCC 77 (S.C.C.)

Comparing US and French Cultures :: essays research papers

Looking back at my experiences in France, I realize just how different our two cultures are. Furthermore, I found it very interesting how, after reading the text, both my parents, one being from France and the other from the United States, reflect the cultural values of their country to a tee. For example, my father has always been the authoritarian parent and my mother the authoritative. French fathers were described in the text as being an "in-control" type parent and using "direct-punishment". He was the strict parent, and my mother, who practiced the typical parenting style used in the United States (authoritative), used a more balanced approach. I would have to say that having both styles of parenting during my childhood had positive as well as negative aspects to it. As described in the text, I did indeed experience more anxiety and withdrawal perhaps due to my fathers authoritarian parenting. However, the positive aspects were that I did well in school and had the utmost respect for my father. I was taught to respect and even if it was out of fear, it worked. As far as socialization agents and their influences are concerned, I have had plenty of experiences in France where the institutions proved to be very different than those in the United States. The schools were extremely strict. For example, when my sister and I were in the school cafeteria all the students were told to put their hands behind their heads and be silent. When my sister made a noise she was sent outside in the pouring rain (with a cast on, which could not get wet). They tied her shoes together so she couldn't run away. Because my sister kept crying, they decided that the only way to get her to stop would be to throw ice cold water in her face. My parents were less than pleased about the occurrence and immediately took us out of the school. Furthermore, when I was in third grade, I remember the teacher spanked us with a wooden board because we went to the bathroom without asking. These experiences probably influenced my behavior in school for the rest of my life. I have always been extremely obedient in school and respected my authority. Another difference I have found between France and the United States is that in France, personal space is much smaller than in the United States.

Core Ideas Of Liberalism and Conservatism

Struggle between liberal and conservative tendencies is, perhaps, the key element for understanding the political life of the west in the last three centuries. So, in order to understand this struggle one needs to understand what are the core ideas of liberalism and conservatism. This paper aims to investigate some of the most prominent example of liberal and conservative political thought. The first basic ideas of liberalism have been explained by John Locke, who explained that â€Å"Adam had not, either by natural right of fatherhood, or by positive donation from God, any such authority over his children, or dominion over the world, as is pretended† (1. 84). Later the state of natural freedom has been replaced by different forms of unjust oppression, and freedom can be restored only by agreement of free individuals making a civil society.   In the world of monarchism this idea sounded revolutionary, but was still far from practical application. Liberal concepts gained much popularity between the Founding Fathers of the United States, as well as later American publicists. Among others they have been explained and practically developed in the Federalist Papers. For example in Paper 51 James Madison investigated the system of checks and balances as a foundation for independent and responsible state power and a guarantee of reservation of liberty and against usurpation. The source of power for Madison is not God or king, for â€Å"the supreme executive, legislative, and judiciary magistracies should be drawn from the same fountain of authority, the people, through channels having no communication whatever with one another† (1. 118). However, liberalism concerns not only the formation of political power, but relations inside the society as well. British philosopher Thomas Hill Green in 1861 wrote about â€Å"the liberation of the powers of all men equally for contributions to a common good† (1.132). And so paradoxically liberalism restricts some forms of civil transaction such as trade of slaves or, for example, those, which jeopardize public health. Liberalism is understood as general state of freedom in the society, which is limited only by freedom of the others and the function of the state in such society is only to protect freedom and never exercise more power, than needed for the interests of liberal society. In contrast to liberalism, conservative ideas gained more popularity in the XIX century and were a sort of reaction to the spread of revolutionary ideas, especially after American and French revolutions, therefore, they have been aimed to limitation of liberalism. As explained by Michael Oakeshott, â€Å"adults who do not consider themselves under any obligation to justify their preferences for making their own choices; and that it is beyond human experience to suppose that those who rule are endowed with a superior wisdom† (1.193). Humans are week, and too much freedom is likely to corrupt the power and ruin the society. Oakeshott’s example is brutal but very persuasive: â€Å"we tolerate monomaniacs, it is our habit to do so; but why should we be ruled by them?† (1.194) Conservatism can be helpful at unstable times and conservative methods of rule like cutting tax rates in order to stimulate steady economic growth or taking control of the media may sometimes serve the public good. Liberalism and conservatism are therefore the two opposite political foundations, neither of which can be obviously preferred of disfavored. The application of liberal and conservative ideas is not a matter of principle, but a matter of current situation. Works Cited: 1. Nancy S. Love. And Dreams: A Reader In Modern Political Ideologies. (CQ Press; 3 edition, 2005)

An evaluation of Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI) The WritePass Journal

An evaluation of Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI) Introduction An evaluation of Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI) IntroductionResearch evaluating the upper limb tension testMethodologyParticipantsProcedure  Data AnalysisRESULTSNature of the perceived sensory response and difference between the mouse and the non mouse handLocation of the perceived sensory responseDiscussion:Summary of the resultsTheoretical Implication:Clinical Implication:Strength of the studyLimitationsScope for future researchConclusionREFERENCESRelated Introduction The incidence of repetitive injury has steadily increased over the past decade and evidence indicates that this trend will continue. (Millender et al 1992, Byng et al 1997). In UK according to the NHS report, 1 in 50 workers has reported symptoms of repetitive stress injury (RSI) (Scot et al 2008). More recently there have been reports of increase in RSI among computer operators (Anderson et al 2008) reason being their repetitive jobs at faster pace. There is also research which reads that forcefulness and awkward position of upper limb have a direct effect on the development of repetitive stress injury (Greening et al 1999). Even though RSI is common, the causes of RSI are complex, diverse and incompletely understood till today. Amongst the most various hypotheses suggested over decades there is some evidence of involving the whole nociceptive system (Brain 2009). With respect to the RSI in upper limb, commonly reported symptoms by patients are cramps, par aesthesia, and hyperalgesia, with no major motor or sensory involvement (Scott et al 2008). And after reviewing these symptoms again and again the nervous system is said to be certainly involved directly or indirectly in all the patients of overuse injury of upper limb (Reisch et al 2005). It were these studies that have given birth to concept called Neurodynamic in the world of physiotherapy (Shacklock 1995) Neurodynamics has become progressively more accepted as part of the evaluation and management of the repetitive injuries (Blaster et al 1997). The ULTT was initially thought by Elvey (1979) as an objective assessment of the neural tissue of the upper quadrant in the examination of arm pain and local pain pattern of the upper quadrant. Fundamentals of neurodynamic testing are that the nervous system exists in physiological and mechanical continuity (Slater ET al1994). This means that when mechanical stresses when applied on the nerve may evoke physiological responses such as alteration in axonal transport or may be interneural blood flow. And physiological disturbances like diabetes may predispose a nerve to mechanical disturbances (Mackinnon et al1986). Physiotherapists’ incorporating tension tests as a part of assessment and treatment have documented that altered nerve extensibility and is a very common finding in RSI disorders. In   conjunction with symptomatology and subjective responses to these techniques, difference in the range of motion (ROM), difference in perceived response etc   between the affected and the non affected are often considered indicative of adverse neural tension, with implied assumption that such differences are not apparent in asymptomatic subjects (Butler 1989). Such assumption questions the evidence based practise and the validity of these tests (Sackett. et al 1996) Research evaluating the upper limb tension test Shacklock in 1995 concluded that ULTT for median nerve is a simple, effective and reliable method of examination to gain an impression of nerve mobility after performing test on cadavers. In 2005 Resich et al performed a study to measure the reliability and sensory response of median nerve biased on normal subjects. The limitation of the study was that it was done just on one side of body of normal individual. This therefore did not allow assessing if any variability or response existed in left and right side. Also the study was done on non keyboard workers thus the results cannot be generalised. Byng et al in 1997 conducted a research to compare the response of ULTT median nerve in asymptomatic, symptomatic key board workers and non keyboard workers. The results concluded that there was a variation in response to the nerve test among the three groups with keyboard workers having significant altered neural sensitivity when compared to non keyboard workers there by concluding the pain in key board workers is neural in origin. The shortcoming of this study was that there is no information regarding what was considered as a normal response at individual joint as there was only unilateral comparison.   Scott et al in 2008 performed a study to determine the false positive ULTT and slumps tests in healthy adults and reported there are false positive response in asymptomatic. But the study was just performed on dominant side of the body thus there can be no comparison and these results cannot be expected for the opposite arm. Also the mean age of participants was only 22 years thus cannot be generalized. Since the researchers knew the dominant side this may have contaminated the result. Thus ULTT is an undoubtedly simple, effective and reliable method of examination to gain an impression of nerve mobility but no trial has attempted to compare the variability of the neural tension test response bilaterally in normals. Without this bit of information the validity of the ULTT is questionable. Thus the aim of the study is to evaluate if there is any difference in mechano sensitivity and perceived response to median nerve ULTT test when compared bilaterally in non symptomatic female key board worker. Methodology Participants Inclusion criteria for the study were: asymptomatic female key board operators between the ages of 18- 60 years without any sensory problem of upper limb and/or neck within the last three months. Participants who complained of bit of neck pain on prolonged hours of sitting which did not radiate to shoulder or upper limb were included.   Subjects were excluded if they reported any contraindication and/or precaution (Butler, 1991) like   peripheral or central nervous system disease or medical metabolic disease like diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis. They were also excluded if they had reduced range of motion of the upper limb and cervical spine. Thirty female asymptomatic key board operators volunteered for the study (mean   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  age 31  ± 6.8 years; range: 24-54 years). Prior to the study all the participants read participation information sheet and signed consent form.   There after participants filled the evaluation form which was regarding inclusion criteria, years of experience, hours of work per day and arm dominance. Arm dominance was defined as the hand participants used for operating the mouse also referred to as mouse hand in the study. Participants were requested not to disclose information regarding their mouse hand during the study. The information pertaining arm dominance was blinded to both the researchers as it was known only after the application of ULTT1 test. Procedure Ethical approval was granted by the Committee on Ethics in Research at Sheffield Hallam University.   After the participants had filled the evaluation form and the participant was eligible for the study screening movements were performed on the cervical spine, thoracic spine and of both the upper limb to abolish these structures as potential resources of symptoms. Two researchers were involved in the study. Both were students of Msc Applying Physiotherapy at Sheffield Hallam University. The author was the primary researcher who performed ULTT1 on all the participants in both hands. The second researcher only assisted to record the response to ULTT1 on body chart. The method adopted to perform ULTT for median nerve was the test proposed by Elvey 1986, Kenneally et al 1988 and Butler 1991a. David Butler in 1991a conveyed ULTT1 to be median nerve dominant and was reliable in normal’s (Edgar et al 1994) and in patient population (Selvaratnam 1991). The ULTT 1 test was described to each participant by the prime researcher before the test is performed and were informed that their participation was utmost important while recording the response on the body chart. They were also informed to move any part of their body while describing their response to the assistant researcher. Each participant wore a vest for the research purpose. There after each participant lay supine on a high/low plinth with the test arm slightly off the plinth. For convenience researcher passively manoeuvres the test first on right hand followed by the left .The position was secured with seat belts around thorax and pelvis to avert lateral movement of the chest. The right arm was tested first for convenience and was placed in starting position with the glen humeral (G-H) joint in neutral, elbow flexed and forearm, wrist, fingers and thumb in neutral. The other arm will lay relaxed adjacent to the abdomen. The participants were advised to maintain the head in neutral position and were requested to look at a spot on ceiling which negated any cervical spine rotation. Thus with the neck in neutral position the ULTT 1 test was commenced. To start with the shoulder was positioned in to neutral position and the examiner placed the hand on the test shoulder to prevent elevation. This was followed by G-H joint abduction to a maximum of 110 ° in frontal plane. From this position wrist, fingers and thumb were passively extended the forearm was supinated. The G-H joint was then externally rotated to no more than 50 ° as the third distinct component to shoulder. Thus the last component to be added was elbow extension. The elbow was extended until full extension was achieved or participant reported any symptoms at any stage of the test. When the symptom were reported by the participant the second researcher was responsible to record the nature of perceived sensory response in form of words or phrases and the location of the perceived sensory response on a right side marked on body chart. There after structural differentiation (STD) i.e. ipsilateral neck flexion (INF) was performed by the actively. ULTT1 was considered mechanosensitive positive only if the participant perceived reduction in the perceived symptoms and if the primary researcher performing ULTT visually observed an increase in the   range of motion at elbow after the addition of desensitising manoeuvre i.e. the ipsilateral neck flexion (Quinter 1989, Butler 1990). The response of mechanosensitivity for ULTT was recorded as â€Å"Yes â€Å"or â€Å"No† and the response to structural deviation was recorded as increased (↑) or decreased (↓) with respect to symptoms only. A break of 10 minutes was given before the test was performed in the left hand. The same procedure was carried out and data was collected in similar manner on body chart.   Data Analysis Descriptive statistics were utilized to know if mechanosensitivity for ULTT1 exists in the participants. After data collection all the sensory responses were collated on a single body chart(figure 2) which as further analysed by dividing the upper limb into five distinct areas i.e. cubital, forearm, wrist, fingers and thumb. Frequencies of these locations were counted regardless of its nature and were tabulated. This made comparison between the two hands easier. The nature of perceived sensory response which was reported as words or phrases was divided in two categories stretch pain, pull pain. Frequency of the similar type of response was counted and compared for further analysis. Demographic characteristics like age, years of experience, hours of work and dominance were to analyse if association between ULTT1 response and these variables exists. To achieve the aim of the study, the data were analysed by answering the following questions. Analysis of the ULTT1 response in asymptomatic key board operators i.e. (mechanosensitive and the perceived sensory response from body chart). From the above analysis are there any evidence showing upper limb neurodynamic tests for median nerve is positive among asymptomatic key board operators? If â€Å"Yes† is there a difference in the response to ULTT1 when compared bilaterally? If there is a difference in response when compared bilaterally, is there an association between the hours of work, age and dominance with the ULTT1 response. The answers to these key questions further assisted in exploration of the research question: Is there a variability of response to upper limb neurodynamic test of median nerve in asymptomatic keyboard operators when compared bilaterally RESULTS Summary of mechanosensitive response compared between mouse and non mouse hand: Table 1 : Table of mechanosensitivity and sensory response in bilateral upper limbs. No Mousehand RIGHT ULTT 1 RIGHT STD    LEFT ULTT 1 LEFT STD Nature of perceived sensory response (R) Location of sensory response(R) Nature of perceived sensory response (L) Location of sensory response(L) 1 L Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3 Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 2 R N ↓ N ↓ 3 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2 4 L Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3 Pull pain 1,2,3 5 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2,3   6 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2 7 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2,3,4 8 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2 9 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 10 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2,3 11 R N ↓ N ↓ 12 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 13 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2,3 14 R Y Y Pull pain 1,2,3,4 Pull pain 1,2,3 15 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2 16 R N ↓ N ↓ 17 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2 18 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2,3 19 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2,3 20 R Y Y Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2, 21 L Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4 Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 22 R N ↓ N ↓ 23 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3 Pull pain 1,2,3, 24 R Y Y Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2 25 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2,3 26 L N ↓ N ↓ 27 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4 Pull pain 1,2 28 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2,3 29 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2,3 30 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2,3 ULTT1 Upper limb neural tissue tension test for median nere ; STD structural differentiation; INF: ipsilateral neck flexion      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Incidenc e of mechanosensitive response Fig1-Incidence of detected mechanosensitive response for ULTT 1 amongst asymptomatic keyboard operators From figure 1 it was evident that a high number of participants showed response for ULTT1. On adding ipsilateral neck flexion all of them perceived reduction in the symptoms Table 1.There was nobody who had complained of   unilateral symptoms.   Thus there was no difference in the mechanosensitive response to ULLT1 in the mouse and non mouse hand. Nature of the perceived sensory response and difference between the mouse and the non mouse hand After summarising the data from 30 body charts it was observed that 13 participants (43.33%) had complained of â€Å"stretch pain† and 12 participants (40%) had complained of â€Å"pull† pain (Table 1). After comparing the sensory response of mouse hand and non mouse hand in table 1, it was observed there was no difference in perceived sensory response in both the hands. Location of the perceived sensory response The location of perceived sensation in the right and left hand of all the participants were plotted on a single body chart. Figure 1 shows numerical involvement of location of symptoms for the ULTT1 amongst asymptomatic keyboard operators. Figure 1: Body chart divided into 5 areas where responses were perceived. After analysing the repsponse Graphs 2a and 2b :Comparing the symptoms in the mouse and the non mouse hand Location of response  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Location of response From the graphs 2a and 2b it is clearly evident there was difference in the location of sensory response between the mouse and the non mouse hand. The median nerve was more sensititive in fingers and the wrist joints as compared to the non mouse hand. Discussion: Summary of the results The results from this study showed that asymptomatic keyboard operators showed a positive mechanosensitive response for ULTT1. There was no difference in the mechanosensitive and perceived sensory response when compared bilaterally. 83.33% participants had bilaterally positive mechanosensitive response and had shown increased area of symptoms in mouse hand. And on further reviewing individual characteristics of these participants there was no association found between with age, hours of work and years of experience. Byng 1997 compared the response of ULTT1 between patients, asymptomatic keyboard workers and asymptomatic non keyboard workers.   The results showed that key board operators had significant positive ULTT compared to non-keyboard user. Thus the current study and study performed by Byng et al 1997 proposes that a subclinical pathological condition exists in key board operators. There could be many reasons for such a scenario in this group of population. One of the reflection is the type of muscle exertion that is involved in the keyboard workers performing repetitive task for a prolonged hours causes static loading of neck and shoulder muscles (Subratty et al 2005). These static sustained contractions of the shoulders, neck and upper limbs may be required to fix the hands in a functional position necessary for the task (Pascarelli et al 2011). Along with this dynamic contraction of the forearm muscles are required for repetitive key actions which are then superimposed over this backg round of static muscular activity. The musculoskeletal system presents the nervous system with a mechanical interface (Butler 1989). A static muscle contraction such as those witnessed in key board users cause compression of a nerve there by reducing the mobility resulting in positive mechanosensitive response (Subratty et al 2005). The results of the study performed by Lohkamp et al 2011 were in contrast to the current study. He compared bilateral ULTT1 response in 90 normal individuals and the results showed that there were more neurogenic response and reduced ROM in the non dominant hand as compared to dominant hand. The difference in the result between the two studies could be attributed to the difference in the population involved. Lohkamp et al 2011 performed study on normal healthy individual who utilized their non-dominant hand less for their normal daily activities which could have led to reduced flexibility of muscles and compromised mobility of the nerve. In the present study since key board operation is a bilateral task such a difference was not observed. Structural differentiation is added to determine if the ULTT is positive or not (Butler 1991, Nee 2006). Depending on the type of structural differentiation applied, tension in the median nerve could be increased or decreased (Byl et al 2002).   In this study all the participants who had reported symptoms for ULTT1; 100% had reported decreased in the sensory response after adding structural differentiation (ipsilateral neck flexion). Similar results were reported by Selvaratnam et al 1994 and Scot et al 2008. This observation might be caused by decreased tensile force of the nerve causing increase in the circulation (Otaga and Niato, 1986). Similar results were seen in a study performed by Coopeiters et al 2002A which concluded that with structural differentiation there was a change in the ROM at the elbow joint and the frequency of response distal to it had reduced. Coopeiters et al 2002A also suggested performing contra lateral neck flexion as a structural differentiation to ULTT 1 as it causes more tension in the nerve tissue and is more specific in provoking the symptoms. But since this study was done in asymptomatic key board operators who are already exposed to high risk of developing overuse syndrome symptoms (Scot et al,2008),   contra lateral neck flexion was not the choice of STD in this study for ethical reasons. The present study found no difference in the perceived sensory response in the mouse and the non- mouse hand. Stretch and pull pain were the reported perceived symptoms. The literature reads that stretch and pull sensations are considered as normal response to ULTT1. An individual is considered as mechanosensitive positive if there is a decreased in the ROM while performing ULTT (Buttler1991). Even though the participants had shown response which was similar to normal’s they were still labelled as mechano sensitive for ULTT1 as the researcher had observed reduced ROM at elbow while performing ULTT but it was not measured. This further emphasise that asymptomatic key board users could have a hidden pathological state and are at high risk for developing repetitive stress injury syndromes. An understandable sample of frequency and nature of symptoms was recognized as there was not much of deviation. Amongst the participants who were mechanosensitive bilaterally 100% had perceived sensation at the cubital area (anterior aspect of elbow). The other common reported sites were forearm, wrist, fingers and thumb. The site of involvement was in accordance to the study put forth by Kenneally et al 1988 and Butler et al 1989. The 92% who had complained of more areas of response in mouse hand, had perceived symptoms in the cubital area   wrist fingers and thumb while the non dominant hand had received symptoms only in cubital area and forearm. The rationale for this could be the usage of the mouse itself.   Recent studies like Jepsen et al 2002 contributed to the literature by performing a cross sectional study on computer operators and concluded that pain, parasthesia and weakness were more prevalent in mouse arm as compared to non-mouse arm. The clinical reasoning behind this could be the mouse operating wrist is constantly positioned in a bent position and this causes reduced space in the carpal tunnel further reducing the mobility of median nerve and the other structures like tendon situated in it. Thus in the median exposed to more compressive forces in the mouse hand than the contra lateral limb and hence it becomes irritable and produces symptoms like tingling and numbness in the wrist, fingers and thumb. Also the difference in location of response had no association with age, hours of work and years of experience as these characteristics were no different than the other participants in the study similar result were observed by (Byng et al 1997) Theoretical Implication: From the current study it can be suggested that a subclinical pathological state exisits among female amongst the asymptomatic female key board operators supporting several hypothesis that the origin of repetitive stress injury are neurogenic in origin. This study also suggests that the usage of the mouse along with causes increased mechanosensitivity of median nerve in wrist fingers and thumb. Thus work place modification and ergonomic advise should also consider the mouse modification. Clinical Implication: Literature shows that dominant arm in normal’s could be used as a control group while assessing the ULTT1 response amongst symtomatics as there exists no variation in response to ULTT1 amongst normal healthy individuals. This study though performed on asymptomatic targeted an intermediate group and suggests that dominant arm is not a reliable diagnostic indicator as variability exists in the bilateral response with more response being in the dominant arm which is in contrast to the current literature. Strength of the study Limited research is available which compares bilateral response of ULTT1 thus the current study adds on to this limited literature. Also while ULTT1 was being conducted the researchers were blinded to the information of dominance to prevent assessor bias. The results obtained from the study could be generalizable as a large age group was included. Limitations Participants were labelled as mechanosesntitive positive if they had perceived a reduction in symptoms after adding ipsilateral neck flexion . No objecetive scale was used to find by how much the percentage the symptoms were reduced thus future research should incorporate scales like VAS scale to have more reliable results. The ULTT was carried out only ones on participants to label them as mechanosesntive positive. Thus this single reposne may not have recorded the real response. Ideally a mean of 3 response would be indiacted to prevent any errors. Scope for future research Future research should focus on more objective methods of accessing the variability of response ofULTT1 among symptomatic key board operators. If ROM is suggested as objective means to measure variability research should be carried out to know how much difference in ROM is required to label an individual mechanosensitive positive. Conclusion The results indicate that asymptomatic key board operators are mechanosensitive positive for ULTT1. There exists a difference in the location of the perceived response when compared bilaterally with more areas being in the dominant arm. Thus domiant of asymptomatics could not be used as a normal control variable while assessing the response of ULTT1 in symptomatic population.    REFERENCES Andersen JH, Harhoff M, Grimstrup S et al. Computer mouse use predicts acute pain but not prolonged or chronic pain in the neck and shoulder. Occup Environ Med 2008; 65:126-131 Balster S, Jull G. Upper trapezius muscle activity during the brachial plexus tension test in asymptomatic subjects. Manual Therapy 1997; 2(3): 144-149 Bell A. The upper limb tension test bilateral straight leg raising a validating manoeuvre for the upper limb tension test. Proceedings of the fifth Biennial Conference of the Manipulative Therapists Association of Australia Melbourne, 1987 pp 106-114 Butler DS. Adverse mechanical tension in the nervous system: a model for assessment and Treatment. The Australian Journal of Physiotherapy 1989; 35: 227-238 Butler DS. Mobilisation of the nervous system, Melbourne Churchill Livingstone 1991. Butler DS. The upper limb tension test revisited. In Grant R (Ed.): Clinics in Physical therapy. Physical therapy of the cervical and thoracic spine (2nd ed.), Edinburgh Churchill Livingstone 1994 pp 217-244 Butler DS Adverse mechanical tension in the nervous system: a model for assessment and treatment. Commentary. In Maher C (Ed.): The Australian Journal of Physiotherapy Monograph No.3 ‘Adverse neural tension† reconsidered Melbourne 1998, _pp 33-36 Butler DS. The sensitive nervous system, Adelaide Noigroup Publications, 2000. Byl C, Puttlitz C, Byl N, Lotz J, Topp K. Strain in the median and ulnar nerves during upper-extremity positioning. The Journal of Hand Surgery 2002; 27A (6):1032-1040 Byng A. Overuse syndrome of the upper limb and the upper limb tension test: a comparison between patients, symptomatic keyboard workers and asymptomatic keyboard workers. Manual therapy1997; 2(3):157-164 Clare HA (1989) the clinical testing of upper limb neural tissue in repetitive strain injury. . Proceedings of the Sixth Biennial Conference of the Manipulative Therapists Association of Australia Adelaide, pp 28-33 Coppieters MW, Stappaerts KH, Everaert DG, Staes FF. A qualitative assessment of shoulder girdle elevation during the upper limb tension test 1.Manual Therapy 1999; 4 (1): 33-38 Coppieters MW, Stappaerts KH, Staes FF, Everaert DG. Shoulder girdle elevation during neurodynamic testing: an assessable sign? Manual Therapy 2001a 6(2): 88-96. Coppieters MW, Stappaerts KH, Everaert DG, Staes FF. Addition of test components during neurodynamic testing: effect on range of motion and sensory responses. –Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy 2001b 31(5): 226-237 Coppieters MW, Butler DS.   In defence of neural mobilisation. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy 2001c; 31(9): 520-521 Coppieters MW, van de Velde M, Staeppaerts KH. Positioning in anaesthesiology. Toward a better understanding of stretch-induced preoperative neuropathies. Anaesthesiology 2002a; 97: 75-81 Coppieters MW, Stappaerts KH, Koen J, Jull G.   Reliability of detecting ‘onset of pain’ and ‘Sub maximal pain’ during neural provocation testing of the upper quadrant. Physiotherapy Research International 2002b; 7(3): 146-156 Coppieters MW, Butler DS. In defence of neural mobilisation: Part 2. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy 2002c; 32(3): 125-126 Coppieters MW, Stappaerts KH, Wouters LL, Koen J . Aberrant protection force generation during neural provocation testing and the effect of treatment in patients with neurogenic cervicobrachial pain. –Journal of Manipulative Physiological Therapy 2003a; 26: 99-106 Coppieters MW, Stappaerts KH, Wouters LL, Janssen K. The immediate effects of a cervical lateral glide treatment technique in patients with neurogenic cervicobrachial pain. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy 2003b; 33(7): 369-378 in press Elvey RL.   Brachial plexus tension tests and the path anatomical origin of arm pain. In Glasgow EF and Twomey L (Eds.): Aspects of Manipulative Therapy, 1979 Melbourne Lincoln Institute of Health Sciences, pp 105-110 Elvey RL. Treatment of arm pain associated with abnormal brachial plexus tension. The Australian Journal of Physiotherapy 1986, 32: 225-230 Elvey RL. The investigation of arm pain: signs of adverse responses to the physical examination of the brachial plexus and related neural tissues. 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Lancet 1999 354:217-218 Greening J, Lynn B, Leary R, Warren L, O’Higgins P, Hall-Craggs M. The use of ultrasound imaging to demonstrate reduced movement of the median nerve during wrist flexion in patients with RSI. In Singer KP (Ed.): Abstracts of the 7th Scientific Conference of the IFOMT in conjunction with the Biennial Conference of the MPAA, Perth 2000, p 55 Gross AR, Kay T, Hondras M, Goldsmith C, Haines T, Peloso P, Kennedy C, Hoving J. Manual Therapy for mechanical neck disorders: a systematic review. Manual Therapy 2002 ; 7 (3): 131-149 Heide B, Allison G, Zusman M. Pain and muscular responses to a neural tissue provocation test in the upper limb. Manual therapy 2001; 6(3):154-162 Jensen I, Nygren A, Gamberle F et al.   The role of the psychologist in multidisciplinary treatments for chronic neck and shoulder pain: a controlled cost-effectiveness study. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 1995; 27: 19-26 Karjalainen K, Malmivaara A, van Tudler M, Roine R, Jauhiainen M, Hurri H, Koes BW.   Bio psychosocial rehabilitation for upper limb repetitive strain injuries in working age adults (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library 2000b Issue 3, Oxford: Update Software Kenneally M, Rubenach H, Elvey RL. The upper limb tension test: the SLR of the arm. In Grant R (Ed.): Clinics in Physical Therapy. Physical therapy of the cervical and thoracic spine (1st ed) New York Churchill Livingstone, 1998, pp 167-194 Kisner C, Colby LA. Therapeutic Exercise- Foundation and techniques.3rd edition. New Delhi: Jay pee Brothers 1996 pp143 Kleinrensink GJ, Stoeckart R, Vleeming A, Snijders C, Mulder P, van Wingerden JP.Peripheral nerve tension due to joint motion. A comparison between embalmed and unembalmed human bodies. Clinical Biomechanics 1995a; 10(5): 235-239 Kleinrensink GJ, Stoeckart R, Vleeming A, Snijders C, Mulder P. Mechanical tension in the median nerve. The effects of joint positions. Clinical Biomechanics 1995b; 10 (5): 240-244 Kleinrensink GJ, Stoeckart R, Mulder PGH, van der Hoek G, Broek TH Vleeming A, Snijders CJ. Upper limb tension tests as tools in the diagnosis of nerve and plexus lesions. Anatomical and biomechanical aspects. Clinical Biomechanics 2000; 15: 9-14 Kryger AI, Andersen JH, Lassen CF et al. Does computer use pose an occupational hazard for forearm pain; from the NUDATA study. Occup Environ Med 2003; 60:e14 Lewis J, Ramot R, Green A.   Changes in mechanical tension in the median nerve: possible implications for the upper limb tension test. Physiotherapy 1998; 84 (6): 254-261 Lohkamp M, Small K. Normal response to Upper limb Neurodynamic Test 1 and 2A. Manual Therapy 2011; 16:125-130 Mackinnon SE. Double and multiple crush syndrome. Hand clinic 1992; 8: 369-390. Nee RJ, Butler D. Management of peripheral neuropathic pain: integrating neurobiology, neurodynamics and clinical evidence†. Physical Therapy in Sport 2006; 7:36-49 Owen TJ, Brew J, Barlas P. A Single blind investigation into the Potential Differences in Passive Range of Movement at the Elbow, between Dominant and Non-Dominant Arm, when Using the Upper Limb Tension Test 1.Physiotherapy 2000;86(1) Pascarelli  EF, Hsu YP. Understanding Work-Related Upper Extremity Disorders: Clinical Findings in 485 Computer Users, Musicians, and Others. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation 2001; 11 (1): 1-21 Ramadevi MS. Comparison of Adverse neural tissue tension in dental professionals and non-dental professionals using upper-limb tension test.Combaitore:DGR university; March 2001;1-13 Reish R, Williams K, Nee RJ, Rutt RA. ULNT2- median nerve bias: examiner reliability and response in asymptomatic subjects. Journal of Manual Manipulative Therapy 2005; 13(1):44-56. 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Sympathetic slump the effect of a novel manual therapy technique on peripheral sympathetic nervous system function.Journal of Manual Manipulative Therapy, 1994; 2: 156-162. Subratty , Korumtollee F. Occupational overuse syndrome among keyboard users in Mauritius. Indian association of occupational health 2005; 9(2):71-75.Woolf CJ. Recent advances in the path physiology of acute pain. British Journal of Anaesthesia1989; 63: 139-146 Sunderland S, Bradley KC.   Stress-strain phenomena in human peripheral nerve trunks. Brain 1961; 84: 102-119 Walsh M.Upper Limb Neural Tension Testing and Mobilization: Fact, Fiction, and a Practical Approach. Journal of Hand therapy 2005; 18(2):241-258.

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Family Law coursework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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